nogrЭкспериментальная и клиническая гастроэнтерологияExperimental and Clinical Gastroenterology1682-8658«Global Media Technologies»10.31146/1682-8658-ecg-223-3-119-133nogr-2727Research ArticleОБЗОРREVIEWЭффекты пектина на желудочно-кишечный тракт у человекаThe Effects of Pectin on the Gastrointestinal Tract in Humanshttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-7308-7280ХавкинА. И.KhavkinA. I.khavkin@nikid.ruhttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-8364-6066НиколайчукК. М.NikolaychukK. M.noemail@neicon.ruhttps://orcid.org/0009-0009-7816-5562НиколаеваВ. Д.NikolaevaV. D.noemail@neicon.ruhttps://orcid.org/0009-0002-9228-2350ВеременкоА. С.VeremenkoA. S.noemail@neicon.ruhttps://orcid.org/0009-0002-7317-6077ЛевченкоИ. Д.LevchenkoI. D.noemail@neicon.ruhttps://orcid.org/0009-0004-1880-9585ПлатоноваП. Я.PlatonovaP. Ya.noemail@neicon.ruhttps://orcid.org/0009-0008-7479-8277НовиковаМ. Ф.NovikovaM. F.noemail@neicon.ruhttps://orcid.org/0009-0004-1138-6049ТумасА. С.TumasA. S.noemail@neicon.ruhttps://orcid.org/0009-0003-0793-4236ВергуноваЕ. Е.VergunovaE. E.noemail@neicon.ruhttps://orcid.org/0000-0003-3606-4068ШрайнерЕ. В.ShraynerE. V.noemail@neicon.ruНаучно-исследовательский клинический институт детства Министерства здравоохранения Московской области; Белгородский государственный национальный исследовательский университетРоссияResearch Clinical Institute of Childhood, Ministry of Health of the Moscow Region; Belgorod National Research UniversityRussian FederationНовосибирский государственный университетРоссияNovosibirsk State UniversityRussian FederationНовосибирский государственный университет; Институт химической биологии и фундаментальной медицины СО РАНРоссияNovosibirsk State University; Institute of chemical, Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine of the SB RASRussian Federation20241903202403119133Copyright © Хавкин А.И., Николайчук К.М., Николаева В.Д., Веременко А.С., Левченко И.Д., Платонова П.Я., Новикова М.Ф., Тумас А.С., Вергунова Е.Е., Шрайнер Е.В., 20242024Хавкин А.И., Николайчук К.М., Николаева В.Д., Веременко А.С., Левченко И.Д., Платонова П.Я., Новикова М.Ф., Тумас А.С., Вергунова Е.Е., Шрайнер Е.В.Khavkin A.I., Nikolaychuk K.M., Nikolaeva V.D., Veremenko A.S., Levchenko I.D., Platonova P.Y., Novikova M.F., Tumas A.S., Vergunova E.E., Shrayner E.V.Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.https://www.nogr.org/jour/article/view/2727

В представленной статье обсуждается комплексное воздействие пектинов, особенно цитрусового происхождения, на функциональные и биологические процессы в организме. Основное внимание уделяется их структурным характеристикам, механизмам взаимодействия с клетками врождённого иммунитета и их потенциальному влиянию на развитие и регуляцию воспалительных заболеваний кишечника. Обсуждается роль метилэтерификации пектинов в их биологической активности. Снижение степени метилэтерификации улучшает биодоступность пектинов и их взаимодействие с клеточными рецепторами, такими как Toll-подобные и галектин-3, что важно для их противовоспалительных и антиадгезивных свойств. Структурные модификации пектинов, как было показано, напрямую влияют на их способность модулировать иммунные ответы и взаимодействовать с микробиотой кишечника, что способствует укреплению кишечного барьера и снижению воспалительных процессов. Многообещающие результаты показали эксперименты с использованием пектинов в диетах направленных на лечение воспалительных заболеваний кишечника, таких как неспецифический язвенный колит и болезнь Крона. Несмотря на обнаруженное противовоспалительное воздействие, полный механизм действия пектинов и их влияние на различные типы воспалительных клеток, таких как Th17 и Th1, требует дополнительного исследования.

The presented article discusses the complex effect of pectins, especially of citrus origin, on functional and biological processes in the body. The main attention is paid to their structural characteristics, mechanisms of interaction with cells of innate immunity and their potential influence on the development and regulation of inflammatory bowel diseases. The role of methylesterification of pectins in their biological activity is discussed. Reducing the degree of methyl esterification improves the bioavailability of pectins and their interaction with cellular receptors such as Toll-like and galectin-3, which is important for their anti-inflammatory and anti-adhesive properties. Structural modifications of pectins have been shown to directly affect their ability to modulate immune responses and interact with the gut microbiota, which helps to strengthen the intestinal barrier and reduce inflammation. Promising results have been shown by experiments using pectins in diets aimed at treating inflammatory bowel diseases such as non-specific ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease. Despite the anti-inflammatory effects found, the full mechanism of action of pectins and their effect on different types of inflammatory cells, such as Th17 and Th1, requires further investigation

пектинцитрусовый пектинпищевые волокнамикробиоты кишечникавоспалительные заболевания кишечникаpectincitrus pectindietary fibregut microbiotainflammatory bowel diseaseReferencesBeukema M., Faas M. M., de Vos P. The effects of different dietary fiber pectin structures on the gastrointestinal immune barrier: impact via gut microbiota and direct effects on immune cells. Exp Mol Med. 2020 Sep;52(9):1364-1376. doi: 10.1038/s12276-020-0449-2.Beukema M., Faas M. M., de Vos P. The effects of different dietary fiber pectin structures on the gastrointestinal immune barrier: impact via gut microbiota and direct effects on immune cells. Exp Mol Med. 2020 Sep;52(9):1364-1376. doi: 10.1038/s12276-020-0449-2.Sun Y., He Y., Wang F., Zhang H., de Vos P., Sun J. Low-methoxyl lemon pectin attenuates inflammatory responses and improves intestinal barrier integrity in caerulein-induced experimental acute pancreatitis. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2017 Apr;61(4). doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201600885.Sun Y., He Y., Wang F., Zhang H., de Vos P., Sun J. Low-methoxyl lemon pectin attenuates inflammatory responses and improves intestinal barrier integrity in caerulein-induced experimental acute pancreatitis. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2017 Apr;61(4). doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201600885.Jiang T., Gao X., Wu C. et al. Apple-Derived Pectin Modulates Gut Microbiota, Improves Gut Barrier Function, and Attenuates Metabolic Endotoxemia in Rats with Diet-Induced Obesity. Nutrients. 2016 Feb 29;8(3):126. doi: 10.3390/nu8030126.Jiang T., Gao X., Wu C. et al. Apple-Derived Pectin Modulates Gut Microbiota, Improves Gut Barrier Function, and Attenuates Metabolic Endotoxemia in Rats with Diet-Induced Obesity. Nutrients. 2016 Feb 29;8(3):126. doi: 10.3390/nu8030126.Wilms E., Jonkers D. M.A.E., Savelkoul H. F.J. et al. The Impact of Pectin Supplementation on Intestinal Barrier Function in Healthy Young Adults and Healthy Elderly. Nutrients. 2019 Jul 9;11(7):1554. doi: 10.3390/nu11071554.Wilms E., Jonkers D. M.A.E., Savelkoul H. F.J. et al. The Impact of Pectin Supplementation on Intestinal Barrier Function in Healthy Young Adults and Healthy Elderly. Nutrients. 2019 Jul 9;11(7):1554. doi: 10.3390/nu11071554.Sahasrabudhe N.M., Beukema M., Tian L. et al. Dietary Fiber Pectin Directly Blocks Toll-Like Receptor 2-1 and Prevents Doxorubicin-Induced Ileitis. Front Immunol. 2018 Mar 1;9:383. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00383.Sahasrabudhe N.M., Beukema M., Tian L. et al. Dietary Fiber Pectin Directly Blocks Toll-Like Receptor 2-1 and Prevents Doxorubicin-Induced Ileitis. Front Immunol. 2018 Mar 1;9:383. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00383.Larsen N., Bussolo de Souza C., Krych L. et al. Potential of Pectins to Beneficially Modulate the Gut Microbiota Depends on Their Structural Properties. Front Microbiol. 2019 Feb 15;10:223. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00223.Larsen N., Bussolo de Souza C., Krych L. et al. Potential of Pectins to Beneficially Modulate the Gut Microbiota Depends on Their Structural Properties. Front Microbiol. 2019 Feb 15;10:223. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00223.Lara-Espinoza C., Carvajal-Millán E., Balandrán-Quintana R., López-Franco Y., Rascón-Chu A. Pectin and Pectin-Based Composite Materials: Beyond Food Texture. Molecules. 2018 Apr 18;23(4):942. doi: 10.3390/molecules23040942.Lara-Espinoza C., Carvajal-Millán E., Balandrán-Quintana R., López-Franco Y., Rascón-Chu A. Pectin and Pectin-Based Composite Materials: Beyond Food Texture. Molecules. 2018 Apr 18;23(4):942. doi: 10.3390/molecules23040942.Daas P.J., Voragen A. G., Schols H. A. Characterization of non-esterified galacturonic acid sequences in pectin with endopolygalacturonase. Carbohydr Res. 2000 Jun 2;326(2):120-9. doi: 10.1016/s0008-6215(00)00037-9.Daas P.J., Voragen A. G., Schols H. A. Characterization of non-esterified galacturonic acid sequences in pectin with endopolygalacturonase. Carbohydr Res. 2000 Jun 2;326(2):120-9. doi: 10.1016/s0008-6215(00)00037-9.O’Neill M.A., Ishii T., Albersheim P., Darvill A. G. Rhamnogalacturonan II: structure and function of a borate cross-linked cell wall pectic polysaccharide. Annu Rev Plant Biol. 2004;55:109-39. doi: 10.1146/annurev.arplant.55.031903.141750.O’Neill M.A., Ishii T., Albersheim P., Darvill A. G. Rhamnogalacturonan II: structure and function of a borate cross-linked cell wall pectic polysaccharide. Annu Rev Plant Biol. 2004;55:109-39. doi: 10.1146/annurev.arplant.55.031903.141750.Wikiera A., Irla M., Mika M. Prozdrowotne właściwości pektyn [Health-promoting properties of pectin]. Postepy Hig Med Dosw (Online). 2014;68:590-596. Published 2014 Jan 2. doi: 10.5604/17322693.1102342.Wikiera A., Irla M., Mika M. Prozdrowotne właściwości pektyn [Health-promoting properties of pectin]. Postepy Hig Med Dosw (Online). 2014;68:590-596. Published 2014 Jan 2. doi: 10.5604/17322693.1102342.Di Ciaula A., Baj J., Garruti G. et al. Liver Steatosis, Gut-Liver Axis, Microbiome and Environmental Factors. A Never-Ending Bidirectional Cross-Talk. J Clin Med. 2020;9(8):2648. Published 2020 Aug 14. doi: 10.3390/jcm9082648.Di Ciaula A., Baj J., Garruti G. et al. Liver Steatosis, Gut-Liver Axis, Microbiome and Environmental Factors. A Never-Ending Bidirectional Cross-Talk. J Clin Med. 2020;9(8):2648. Published 2020 Aug 14. doi: 10.3390/jcm9082648.Mowat A.M., Agace W. W. Regional specialization within the intestinal immune system. Nat Rev Immunol. 2014;14(10):667-685. doi: 10.1038/nri3738.Mowat A.M., Agace W. W. Regional specialization within the intestinal immune system. Nat Rev Immunol. 2014;14(10):667-685. doi: 10.1038/nri3738.Jakobsson H.E., Rodríguez-Piñeiro A.M., Schütte A. et al. The composition of the gut microbiota shapes the colon mucus barrier. EMBO Rep. 2015;16(2):164-177. doi: 10.15252/embr.201439263.Jakobsson H.E., Rodríguez-Piñeiro A.M., Schütte A. et al. The composition of the gut microbiota shapes the colon mucus barrier. EMBO Rep. 2015;16(2):164-177. doi: 10.15252/embr.201439263.Peterson L.W., Artis D.Intestinal epithelial cells: regulators of barrier function and immune homeostasis. Nat Rev Immunol. 2014;14(3):141-153. doi: 10.1038/nri3608.Peterson L.W., Artis D.Intestinal epithelial cells: regulators of barrier function and immune homeostasis. Nat Rev Immunol. 2014;14(3):141-153. doi: 10.1038/nri3608.Hino S., Sonoyama K., Bito H., Kawagishi H., Aoe S., Morita T. Low-methoxyl pectin stimulates small intestinal mucin secretion irrespective of goblet cell proliferation and is characterized by jejunum Muc2 upregulation in rats. J Nutr. 2013;143(1):34-40. doi: 10.3945/jn.112.167064.Hino S., Sonoyama K., Bito H., Kawagishi H., Aoe S., Morita T. Low-methoxyl pectin stimulates small intestinal mucin secretion irrespective of goblet cell proliferation and is characterized by jejunum Muc2 upregulation in rats. J Nutr. 2013;143(1):34-40. doi: 10.3945/jn.112.167064.Jung T.H., Park J. H., Jeon W. M., Han K. S. Butyrate modulates bacterial adherence on LS174T human colorectal cells by stimulating mucin secretion and MAPK signaling pathway. Nutr Res Pract. 2015;9(4):343-349. doi: 10.4162/nrp.2015.9.4.343.Jung T.H., Park J. H., Jeon W. M., Han K. S. Butyrate modulates bacterial adherence on LS174T human colorectal cells by stimulating mucin secretion and MAPK signaling pathway. Nutr Res Pract. 2015;9(4):343-349. doi: 10.4162/nrp.2015.9.4.343.Faderl M., Noti M., Corazza N., Mueller C. Keeping bugs in check: The mucus layer as a critical component in maintaining intestinal homeostasis. IUBMB Life. 2015;67(4):275-285. doi: 10.1002/iub.1374.Faderl M., Noti M., Corazza N., Mueller C. Keeping bugs in check: The mucus layer as a critical component in maintaining intestinal homeostasis. IUBMB Life. 2015;67(4):275-285. doi: 10.1002/iub.1374.Wang H., Zhang X., Zuo Z. et al. Rip2 Is Required for Nod2-Mediated Lysozyme Sorting in Paneth Cells. J Immunol. 2017;198(9):3729-3736. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.1601583.Wang H., Zhang X., Zuo Z. et al. Rip2 Is Required for Nod2-Mediated Lysozyme Sorting in Paneth Cells. J Immunol. 2017;198(9):3729-3736. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.1601583.Okumura R., Takeda K. Roles of intestinal epithelial cells in the maintenance of gut homeostasis. Exp Mol Med. 2017;49(5): e338. Published 2017 May 26. doi: 10.1038/emm.2017.20.Okumura R., Takeda K. Roles of intestinal epithelial cells in the maintenance of gut homeostasis. Exp Mol Med. 2017;49(5): e338. Published 2017 May 26. doi: 10.1038/emm.2017.20.Dillon A., Lo D. D. M Cells: Intelligent Engineering of Mucosal Immune Surveillance. Front Immunol. 2019;10:1499. Published 2019 Jul 2. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01499.Dillon A., Lo D. D. M Cells: Intelligent Engineering of Mucosal Immune Surveillance. Front Immunol. 2019;10:1499. Published 2019 Jul 2. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01499.Ahluwalia B., Magnusson M. K., Öhman L. Mucosal immune system of the gastrointestinal tract: maintaining balance between the good and the bad. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2017;52(11):1185-1193. doi: 10.1080/00365521.2017.1349173.Ahluwalia B., Magnusson M. K., Öhman L. Mucosal immune system of the gastrointestinal tract: maintaining balance between the good and the bad. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2017;52(11):1185-1193. doi: 10.1080/00365521.2017.1349173.Joeris T., Müller-Luda K., Agace W. W., Mowat A. M. Diversity and functions of intestinal mononuclear phagocytes. Mucosal Immunol. 2017;10(4):845-864. doi: 10.1038/mi.2017.22.Joeris T., Müller-Luda K., Agace W. W., Mowat A. M. Diversity and functions of intestinal mononuclear phagocytes. Mucosal Immunol. 2017;10(4):845-864. doi: 10.1038/mi.2017.22.Masahata K., Umemoto E., Kayama H. et al. Generation of colonic IgA-secreting cells in the caecal patch. Nat Commun. 2014 Apr 10;5:3704. doi: 10.1038/ncomms4704.Masahata K., Umemoto E., Kayama H. et al. Generation of colonic IgA-secreting cells in the caecal patch. Nat Commun. 2014 Apr 10;5:3704. doi: 10.1038/ncomms4704.Agace W.W., McCoy K. D. Regionalized Development and Maintenance of the Intestinal Adaptive Immune Landscape. Immunity. 2017 Apr 18;46(4):532-548. doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2017.04.004.Agace W.W., McCoy K. D. Regionalized Development and Maintenance of the Intestinal Adaptive Immune Landscape. Immunity. 2017 Apr 18;46(4):532-548. doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2017.04.004.Mann E.R., Bernardo D., English N. R. et al.Compartment-specific immunity in the human gut: properties and functions of dendritic cells in the colon versus the ileum. Gut. 2016 Feb;65(2):256-70. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2014-307916.Mann E.R., Bernardo D., English N. R. et al.Compartment-specific immunity in the human gut: properties and functions of dendritic cells in the colon versus the ileum. Gut. 2016 Feb;65(2):256-70. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2014-307916.Sundaram T.S., Giromini C., Rebucci R., Pistl J., Bhide M., Baldi A. Role of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, citrus pectin, and milk-derived exosomes on intestinal barrier integrity and immunity in animals. J Anim Sci Biotechnol. 2022 Apr 11;13(1):40. doi: 10.1186/s40104-022-00690-7.Sundaram T.S., Giromini C., Rebucci R., Pistl J., Bhide M., Baldi A. Role of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, citrus pectin, and milk-derived exosomes on intestinal barrier integrity and immunity in animals. J Anim Sci Biotechnol. 2022 Apr 11;13(1):40. doi: 10.1186/s40104-022-00690-7.Uerlings J., Schroyen M., Bautil A. et al. In vitro prebiotic potential of agricultural by-products on intestinal fermentation, gut barrier and inflammatory status of piglets. Br J Nutr. 2020 Feb 14;123(3):293-307. doi: 10.1017/S0007114519002873.Uerlings J., Schroyen M., Bautil A. et al. In vitro prebiotic potential of agricultural by-products on intestinal fermentation, gut barrier and inflammatory status of piglets. Br J Nutr. 2020 Feb 14;123(3):293-307. doi: 10.1017/S0007114519002873.Beukema M., Ishisono K., de Waard J., Faas M. M., de Vos P., Kitaguchi K. Pectin limits epithelial barrier disruption by Citrobacter rodentium through anti-microbial effects. Food Funct. 2021 Jan 21;12(2):881-891. doi: 10.1039/d0fo02605k.Beukema M., Ishisono K., de Waard J., Faas M. M., de Vos P., Kitaguchi K. Pectin limits epithelial barrier disruption by Citrobacter rodentium through anti-microbial effects. Food Funct. 2021 Jan 21;12(2):881-891. doi: 10.1039/d0fo02605k.de Paula Menezes Barbosa P., Roggia Ruviaro A., Mateus Martins I., Alves Macedo J., LaPointe G., Alves Macedo G. Effect of enzymatic treatment of citrus by-products on bacterial growth, adhesion and cytokine production by Caco-2 cells. Food Funct. 2020 Oct 21;11(10):8996-9009. doi: 10.1039/d0fo01963a.de Paula Menezes Barbosa P., Roggia Ruviaro A., Mateus Martins I., Alves Macedo J., LaPointe G., Alves Macedo G. Effect of enzymatic treatment of citrus by-products on bacterial growth, adhesion and cytokine production by Caco-2 cells. Food Funct. 2020 Oct 21;11(10):8996-9009. doi: 10.1039/d0fo01963a.Vogt L.M., Sahasrabudhe N. M., Ramasamy U. et al. The impact of lemon pectin characteristics on TLR activation and T84 intestinal epithelial cell barrier function. Journal of Functional Foods. 2016; 22:398-407. doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2016.02.002.Vogt L.M., Sahasrabudhe N. M., Ramasamy U. et al. The impact of lemon pectin characteristics on TLR activation and T84 intestinal epithelial cell barrier function. Journal of Functional Foods. 2016; 22:398-407. doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2016.02.002.Markov P.A., Popov S. V., Nikitina I. R., Ovodova R. G., Ovodov Y. S. Anti-inflammatory activity of pectins and their galacturonan backbone.Russ J Bioorganic Chem. 2011;37:817-21.Markov P.A., Popov S. V., Nikitina I. R., Ovodova R. G., Ovodov Y. S. Anti-inflammatory activity of pectins and their galacturonan backbone.Russ J Bioorganic Chem. 2011;37:817-21.Kawabata A., Van Hung T., Nagata Y., Fukuda N., Suzuki T. Citrus kawachiensis Peel Powder Reduces Intestinal Barrier Defects and Inflammation in Colitic Mice. J Agric Food Chem. 2018 Oct 24;66(42):10991-10999. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b03511.Kawabata A., Van Hung T., Nagata Y., Fukuda N., Suzuki T. Citrus kawachiensis Peel Powder Reduces Intestinal Barrier Defects and Inflammation in Colitic Mice. J Agric Food Chem. 2018 Oct 24;66(42):10991-10999. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b03511.Tinh N.T.T., Sitolo G. C., Yamamoto Y., Suzuki T. Citrus limon Peel Powder Reduces Intestinal Barrier Defects and Inflammation in a Colitic Murine Experimental Model. Foods. 2021 Jan 25;10(2):240. doi: 10.3390/foods10020240.Tinh N.T.T., Sitolo G. C., Yamamoto Y., Suzuki T. Citrus limon Peel Powder Reduces Intestinal Barrier Defects and Inflammation in a Colitic Murine Experimental Model. Foods. 2021 Jan 25;10(2):240. doi: 10.3390/foods10020240.Abe H., Ishioka M., Fujita Y. et al. Yuzu (Citrus junos Tanaka) Peel Attenuates Dextran Sulfate Sodium-induced Murine Experimental Colitis. J Oleo Sci. 2018 Mar 1;67(3):335-344. doi: 10.5650/jos.ess17184.Abe H., Ishioka M., Fujita Y. et al. Yuzu (Citrus junos Tanaka) Peel Attenuates Dextran Sulfate Sodium-induced Murine Experimental Colitis. J Oleo Sci. 2018 Mar 1;67(3):335-344. doi: 10.5650/jos.ess17184.Pacheco M.T., Vezza T., Diez-Echave P., Utrilla P., Villamiel M., Moreno F. J. Anti-inflammatory bowel effect of industrial orange by-products in DSS-treated mice. Food Funct. 2018 Sep 19;9(9):4888-4896. doi: 10.1039/c8fo01060a.Pacheco M.T., Vezza T., Diez-Echave P., Utrilla P., Villamiel M., Moreno F. J. Anti-inflammatory bowel effect of industrial orange by-products in DSS-treated mice. Food Funct. 2018 Sep 19;9(9):4888-4896. doi: 10.1039/c8fo01060a.Fan L., Zuo S., Tan H., Hu J., Cheng J., Wu Q. et al. Preventive effects of pectin with various degrees of esterification on ulcerative colitis in mice. Food Funct. 2020 Apr 30;11(4):2886-2897. doi: 10.1039/c9fo03068a.Fan L., Zuo S., Tan H., Hu J., Cheng J., Wu Q. et al. Preventive effects of pectin with various degrees of esterification on ulcerative colitis in mice. Food Funct. 2020 Apr 30;11(4):2886-2897. doi: 10.1039/c9fo03068a.Wils-Plotz E.L., Jenkins M. C., Dilger R. N. Modulation of the intestinal environment, innate immune response, and barrier function by dietary threonine and purified fiber during a coccidiosis challenge in broiler chicks. Poult Sci. 2013 Mar;92(3):735-45. doi: 10.3382/ps.2012-02755.Wils-Plotz E.L., Jenkins M. C., Dilger R. N. Modulation of the intestinal environment, innate immune response, and barrier function by dietary threonine and purified fiber during a coccidiosis challenge in broiler chicks. Poult Sci. 2013 Mar;92(3):735-45. doi: 10.3382/ps.2012-02755.McRorie J. W. Jr., McKeown N. M. Understanding the Physics of Functional Fibers in the Gastrointestinal Tract: An Evidence-Based Approach to Resolving Enduring Misconceptions about Insoluble and Soluble Fiber. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2017 Feb;117(2):251-264. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2016.09.021.McRorie J. W. Jr., McKeown N. M. Understanding the Physics of Functional Fibers in the Gastrointestinal Tract: An Evidence-Based Approach to Resolving Enduring Misconceptions about Insoluble and Soluble Fiber. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2017 Feb;117(2):251-264. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2016.09.021.Hino S., Sonoyama K., Bito H., Kawagishi H., Aoe S., Morita T. Low-methoxyl pectin stimulates small intestinal mucin secretion irrespective of goblet cell proliferation and is characterized by jejunum Muc2 upregulation in rats. J Nutr. 2013 Jan;143(1):34-40. doi: 10.3945/jn.112.167064.Hino S., Sonoyama K., Bito H., Kawagishi H., Aoe S., Morita T. Low-methoxyl pectin stimulates small intestinal mucin secretion irrespective of goblet cell proliferation and is characterized by jejunum Muc2 upregulation in rats. J Nutr. 2013 Jan;143(1):34-40. doi: 10.3945/jn.112.167064.Maria-Ferreira D., Nascimento A. M., Cipriani T. R. et al. Rhamnogalacturonan, a chemically-defined polysaccharide, improves intestinal barrier function in DSS-induced colitis in mice and human Caco-2 cells. Sci Rep. 2018 Aug 16;8(1):12261. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-30526-2.Maria-Ferreira D., Nascimento A. M., Cipriani T. R. et al. Rhamnogalacturonan, a chemically-defined polysaccharide, improves intestinal barrier function in DSS-induced colitis in mice and human Caco-2 cells. Sci Rep. 2018 Aug 16;8(1):12261. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-30526-2.Ishisono K., Yabe T., Kitaguchi K. Citrus pectin attenuates endotoxin shock via suppression of Toll-like receptor signaling in Peyer’s patch myeloid cells. J Nutr Biochem. 2017 Dec;50:38-45. doi: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2017.07.016.Ishisono K., Yabe T., Kitaguchi K. Citrus pectin attenuates endotoxin shock via suppression of Toll-like receptor signaling in Peyer’s patch myeloid cells. J Nutr Biochem. 2017 Dec;50:38-45. doi: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2017.07.016.do Nascimento G. E., Winnischofer S. M.B., Ramirez M. I., Iacomini M., Cordeiro L. M.C. The influence of sweet pepper pectin structural characteristics on cytokine secretion by THP-1 macrophages. Food Res Int. 2017 Dec;102:588-594. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2017.09.037.do Nascimento G. E., Winnischofer S. M.B., Ramirez M. I., Iacomini M., Cordeiro L. M.C. The influence of sweet pepper pectin structural characteristics on cytokine secretion by THP-1 macrophages. Food Res Int. 2017 Dec;102:588-594. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2017.09.037.Amorim J.C., Vriesmann L. C., Petkowicz C. L., Martinez G. R., Noleto G. R. Modified pectin from Theobroma cacao induces potent pro-inflammatory activity in murine peritoneal macrophage.Int J Biol Macromol. 2016 Nov;92:1040-1048. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.08.015.Amorim J.C., Vriesmann L. C., Petkowicz C. L., Martinez G. R., Noleto G. R. Modified pectin from Theobroma cacao induces potent pro-inflammatory activity in murine peritoneal macrophage.Int J Biol Macromol. 2016 Nov;92:1040-1048. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.08.015.Inngjerdingen M., Inngjerdingen K. T., Patel T. R. et al. Pectic polysaccharides from Biophytum petersianum Klotzsch, and their activation of macrophages and dendritic cells. Glycobiology. 2008 Dec;18(12):1074-84. doi: 10.1093/glycob/cwn090.Inngjerdingen M., Inngjerdingen K. T., Patel T. R. et al. Pectic polysaccharides from Biophytum petersianum Klotzsch, and their activation of macrophages and dendritic cells. Glycobiology. 2008 Dec;18(12):1074-84. doi: 10.1093/glycob/cwn090.De Jesus M., Ostroff G. R., Levitz S. M., Bartling T. R., Mantis N. J. A population of Langerin-positive dendritic cells in murine Peyer’s patches involved in sampling β-glucan microparticles. PLoS One. 2014 Mar 14;9(3): e91002. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0091002.De Jesus M., Ostroff G. R., Levitz S. M., Bartling T. R., Mantis N. J. A population of Langerin-positive dendritic cells in murine Peyer’s patches involved in sampling β-glucan microparticles. PLoS One. 2014 Mar 14;9(3): e91002. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0091002.Suh H.J., Yang H. S., Ra K. S. et al. Peyer’s patch-mediated intestinal immune system modulating activity of pectic-type polysaccharide from peel of Citrus unshiu. Food Chem. 2013 Jun 1;138(2-3):1079-86. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.11.091.Suh H.J., Yang H. S., Ra K. S. et al. Peyer’s patch-mediated intestinal immune system modulating activity of pectic-type polysaccharide from peel of Citrus unshiu. Food Chem. 2013 Jun 1;138(2-3):1079-86. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.11.091.Kamada N., Núñez G. Regulation of the immune system by the resident intestinal bacteria. Gastroenterology. 2014 May;146(6):1477-88. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2014.01.060.Kamada N., Núñez G. Regulation of the immune system by the resident intestinal bacteria. Gastroenterology. 2014 May;146(6):1477-88. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2014.01.060.do Nascimento G. E., Winnischofer S. M.B., Ramirez M. I., Iacomini M., Cordeiro L. M.C. The influence of sweet pepper pectin structural characteristics on cytokine secretion by THP-1 macrophages. Food Res Int. 2017 Dec;102:588-594. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2017.09.037.do Nascimento G. E., Winnischofer S. M.B., Ramirez M. I., Iacomini M., Cordeiro L. M.C. The influence of sweet pepper pectin structural characteristics on cytokine secretion by THP-1 macrophages. Food Res Int. 2017 Dec;102:588-594. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2017.09.037.Gao X., Zhi Y., Sun L. et al. The inhibitory effects of a rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I) domain from ginseng pectin on galectin-3 and its structure-activity relationship. J Biol Chem. 2013 Nov 22;288(47):33953-33965. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M113.482315.Gao X., Zhi Y., Sun L. et al. The inhibitory effects of a rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I) domain from ginseng pectin on galectin-3 and its structure-activity relationship. J Biol Chem. 2013 Nov 22;288(47):33953-33965. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M113.482315.Sciacchitano S., Lavra L., Morgante A. et al. Galectin-3: One Molecule for an Alphabet of Diseases, from A to Z.Int J Mol Sci. 2018 Jan 26;19(2):379. doi: 10.3390/ijms19020379.Sciacchitano S., Lavra L., Morgante A. et al. Galectin-3: One Molecule for an Alphabet of Diseases, from A to Z.Int J Mol Sci. 2018 Jan 26;19(2):379. doi: 10.3390/ijms19020379.Prado S.B.R.D., Ferreira G. F., Harazono Y. et al. Ripening-induced chemical modifications of papaya pectin inhibit cancer cell proliferation. Sci Rep. 2017 Nov 29;7(1):16564. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-16709-3.Prado S.B.R.D., Ferreira G. F., Harazono Y. et al. Ripening-induced chemical modifications of papaya pectin inhibit cancer cell proliferation. Sci Rep. 2017 Nov 29;7(1):16564. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-16709-3.Díaz-Alvarez L., Ortega E. The Many Roles of Galectin-3, a Multifaceted Molecule, in Innate Immune Responses against Pathogens. Mediators Inflamm. 2017;2017:9247574. doi: 10.1155/2017/9247574.Díaz-Alvarez L., Ortega E. The Many Roles of Galectin-3, a Multifaceted Molecule, in Innate Immune Responses against Pathogens. Mediators Inflamm. 2017;2017:9247574. doi: 10.1155/2017/9247574.Park S.N., Noh K. T., Jeong Y. I. et al. Rhamnogalacturonan II is a Toll-like receptor 4 agonist that inhibits tumor growth by activating dendritic cell-mediated CD8+ T cells. Exp Mol Med. 2013 Feb 8;45(2): e8. doi: 10.1038/emm.2013.14.Park S.N., Noh K. T., Jeong Y. I. et al. Rhamnogalacturonan II is a Toll-like receptor 4 agonist that inhibits tumor growth by activating dendritic cell-mediated CD8+ T cells. Exp Mol Med. 2013 Feb 8;45(2): e8. doi: 10.1038/emm.2013.14.Wang H., Bi H., Gao T., Zhao B., Ni W., Liu J. A homogalacturonan from Hippophae rhamnoides L. Berries enhance immunomodulatory activity through TLR4/MyD88 pathway mediated activation of macrophages.Int J Biol Macromol. 2018 Feb;107(Pt A):1039-1045. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.09.083.Wang H., Bi H., Gao T., Zhao B., Ni W., Liu J. A homogalacturonan from Hippophae rhamnoides L. Berries enhance immunomodulatory activity through TLR4/MyD88 pathway mediated activation of macrophages.Int J Biol Macromol. 2018 Feb;107(Pt A):1039-1045. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.09.083.Sonnenburg E.D., Sonnenburg J. L. Starving our microbial self: the deleterious consequences of a diet deficient in microbiota-accessible carbohydrates. Cell Metab. 2014 Nov 4;20(5):779-786. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2014.07.003.Sonnenburg E.D., Sonnenburg J. L. Starving our microbial self: the deleterious consequences of a diet deficient in microbiota-accessible carbohydrates. Cell Metab. 2014 Nov 4;20(5):779-786. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2014.07.003.Holscher H. D. Dietary fiber and prebiotics and the gastrointestinal microbiota. Gut Microbes. 2017 Mar 4;8(2):172-184. doi: 10.1080/19490976.2017.1290756.Holscher H. D. Dietary fiber and prebiotics and the gastrointestinal microbiota. Gut Microbes. 2017 Mar 4;8(2):172-184. doi: 10.1080/19490976.2017.1290756.Desai M.S., Seekatz A. M., Koropatkin N. M. et al. A Dietary Fiber-Deprived Gut Microbiota Degrades the Colonic Mucus Barrier and Enhances Pathogen Susceptibility. Cell. 2016 Nov 17;167(5):1339-1353.e21. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2016.10.043.Desai M.S., Seekatz A. M., Koropatkin N. M. et al. A Dietary Fiber-Deprived Gut Microbiota Degrades the Colonic Mucus Barrier and Enhances Pathogen Susceptibility. Cell. 2016 Nov 17;167(5):1339-1353.e21. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2016.10.043.Smith P.M., Howitt M. R., Panikov N. et al. The microbial metabolites, short-chain fatty acids, regulate colonic Treg cell homeostasis. Science. 2013 Aug 2;341(6145):569-73. doi: 10.1126/science.1241165.Smith P.M., Howitt M. R., Panikov N. et al. The microbial metabolites, short-chain fatty acids, regulate colonic Treg cell homeostasis. Science. 2013 Aug 2;341(6145):569-73. doi: 10.1126/science.1241165.Kim C. H. Immune regulation by microbiome metabolites. Immunology. 2018 Jun;154(2):220-229. doi: 10.1111/imm.12930.Kim C. H. Immune regulation by microbiome metabolites. Immunology. 2018 Jun;154(2):220-229. doi: 10.1111/imm.12930.Gonçalves P., Martel F. Regulation of colonic epithelial butyrate transport: Focus on colorectal cancer. Porto Biomed J. 2016 Jul-Aug;1(3):83-91. doi: 10.1016/j.pbj.2016.04.004.Gonçalves P., Martel F. Regulation of colonic epithelial butyrate transport: Focus on colorectal cancer. Porto Biomed J. 2016 Jul-Aug;1(3):83-91. doi: 10.1016/j.pbj.2016.04.004.Larsen N., Cahú T. B., Isay Saad S. M., Blennow A., Jespersen L. The effect of pectins on survival of probiotic Lactobacillus spp. in gastrointestinal juices is related to their structure and physical properties. Food Microbiol. 2018 Sep;74:11-20. doi: 10.1016/j.fm.2018.02.015.Larsen N., Cahú T. B., Isay Saad S. M., Blennow A., Jespersen L. The effect of pectins on survival of probiotic Lactobacillus spp. in gastrointestinal juices is related to their structure and physical properties. Food Microbiol. 2018 Sep;74:11-20. doi: 10.1016/j.fm.2018.02.015.Gómez B., Gullón B., Yáñez R., Schols H., Alonso, J. L. Prebiotic potential of pectins and pectic oligosaccharides derived from lemon peel wastes and sugar beet pulp: a comparative evaluation. J. Funct. Foods. 2016;20:108-121. doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2015.10.029.Gómez B., Gullón B., Yáñez R., Schols H., Alonso, J. L. Prebiotic potential of pectins and pectic oligosaccharides derived from lemon peel wastes and sugar beet pulp: a comparative evaluation. J. Funct. Foods. 2016;20:108-121. doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2015.10.029.Li W., Zhang K., Yang H. Pectin Alleviates High Fat (Lard) Diet-Induced Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Mice: Possible Role of Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Gut Microbiota Regulated by Pectin. J Agric Food Chem. 2018 Aug 1;66(30):8015-8025. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b02979.Li W., Zhang K., Yang H. Pectin Alleviates High Fat (Lard) Diet-Induced Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Mice: Possible Role of Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Gut Microbiota Regulated by Pectin. J Agric Food Chem. 2018 Aug 1;66(30):8015-8025. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b02979.Paturi G., Butts C. A., Stoklosinski H., Herath T. D., Monro J. A. Short-term feeding of fermentable dietary fibres influences the gut microbiota composition and metabolic activity in rats.Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2017. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201600186.Paturi G., Butts C. A., Stoklosinski H., Herath T. D., Monro J. A. Short-term feeding of fermentable dietary fibres influences the gut microbiota composition and metabolic activity in rats.Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2017. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201600186.Tian L., Bruggeman G., van den Berg M. et al. Effects of pectin on fermentation characteristics, carbohydrate utilization, and microbial community composition in the gastrointestinal tract of weaning pigs. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2017 Jan;61(1). doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201600186.Tian L., Bruggeman G., van den Berg M. et al. Effects of pectin on fermentation characteristics, carbohydrate utilization, and microbial community composition in the gastrointestinal tract of weaning pigs. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2017 Jan;61(1). doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201600186.Grondin J.M., Tamura K., Déjean G., Abbott D. W., Brumer H. Polysaccharide Utilization Loci: Fueling Microbial Communities. J Bacteriol. 2017 Jul 11;199(15): e00860-16. doi: 10.1128/JB.00860-16.Grondin J.M., Tamura K., Déjean G., Abbott D. W., Brumer H. Polysaccharide Utilization Loci: Fueling Microbial Communities. J Bacteriol. 2017 Jul 11;199(15): e00860-16. doi: 10.1128/JB.00860-16.Mao G., Li S., Orfila C. et al. Depolymerized RG-I-enriched pectin from citrus segment membranes modulates gut microbiota, increases SCFA production, and promotes the growth of Bifidobacterium spp., Lactobacillus spp. and Faecalibaculum spp. Food Funct. 2019 Dec 11;10(12):7828-7843. doi: 10.1039/c9fo01534e.Mao G., Li S., Orfila C. et al. Depolymerized RG-I-enriched pectin from citrus segment membranes modulates gut microbiota, increases SCFA production, and promotes the growth of Bifidobacterium spp., Lactobacillus spp. and Faecalibaculum spp. Food Funct. 2019 Dec 11;10(12):7828-7843. doi: 10.1039/c9fo01534e.Levy M., Thaiss C. A., Elinav E. Metabolites: messengers between the microbiota and the immune system. Genes Dev. 2016 Jul 15;30(14):1589-97. doi: 10.1101/gad.284091.116.Levy M., Thaiss C. A., Elinav E. Metabolites: messengers between the microbiota and the immune system. Genes Dev. 2016 Jul 15;30(14):1589-97. doi: 10.1101/gad.284091.116.den Besten G., van Eunen K., Groen A. K., Venema K., Reijngoud D. J., Bakker B. M. The role of short-chain fatty acids in the interplay between diet, gut microbiota, and host energy metabolism. J Lipid Res. 2013 Sep;54(9):2325-40. doi: 10.1194/jlr.R036012.den Besten G., van Eunen K., Groen A. K., Venema K., Reijngoud D. J., Bakker B. M. The role of short-chain fatty acids in the interplay between diet, gut microbiota, and host energy metabolism. J Lipid Res. 2013 Sep;54(9):2325-40. doi: 10.1194/jlr.R036012.Tian L., Scholte J., Borewicz K. et al. Effects of pectin supplementation on the fermentation patterns of different structural carbohydrates in rats. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2016 Oct;60(10):2256-2266. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201600149.Tian L., Scholte J., Borewicz K. et al. Effects of pectin supplementation on the fermentation patterns of different structural carbohydrates in rats. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2016 Oct;60(10):2256-2266. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201600149.Di R., Vakkalanka M. S., Onumpai C. et al. Pectic oligosaccharide structure-function relationships: Prebiotics, inhibitors of Escherichia coli O157: H7 adhesion and reduction of Shiga toxin cytotoxicity in HT29 cells. Food Chem. 2017 Jul 15;227:245-254. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.01.100.Di R., Vakkalanka M. S., Onumpai C. et al. Pectic oligosaccharide structure-function relationships: Prebiotics, inhibitors of Escherichia coli O157: H7 adhesion and reduction of Shiga toxin cytotoxicity in HT29 cells. Food Chem. 2017 Jul 15;227:245-254. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.01.100.Wilkowska A., Nowak A., Antczak-Chrobot A., Motyl I., Czyżowska A., Paliwoda A. Structurally Different Pectic Oligosaccharides Produced from Apple Pomace and Their Biological Activity In Vitro. Foods. 2019 Aug 26;8(9):365. doi: 10.3390/foods8090365.Wilkowska A., Nowak A., Antczak-Chrobot A., Motyl I., Czyżowska A., Paliwoda A. Structurally Different Pectic Oligosaccharides Produced from Apple Pomace and Their Biological Activity In Vitro. Foods. 2019 Aug 26;8(9):365. doi: 10.3390/foods8090365.Kavanaugh D.W., O’Callaghan J., Buttó L. F. et al. Exposure of Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis to Milk Oligosaccharides Increases Adhesion to Epithelial Cells and Induces a Substantial Transcriptional Response. PLoS One. 2013 Jun 21;8(6): e67224. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0067224.Kavanaugh D.W., O’Callaghan J., Buttó L. F. et al. Exposure of Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis to Milk Oligosaccharides Increases Adhesion to Epithelial Cells and Induces a Substantial Transcriptional Response. PLoS One. 2013 Jun 21;8(6): e67224. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0067224.Leclere L., Cutsem P. V., Michiels C. Anti-cancer activities of pH- or heat-modified pectin. Front Pharmacol. 2013 Oct 8;4:128. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2013.00128.Leclere L., Cutsem P. V., Michiels C. Anti-cancer activities of pH- or heat-modified pectin. Front Pharmacol. 2013 Oct 8;4:128. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2013.00128.Courts F. L. Profiling of modified citrus pectin oligosaccharide transport across Caco-2 cell monolayers. PharmaNutrition. 2013;1(1):22-31. doi: 10.1016/j.phanu.2012.12.001.Courts F. L. Profiling of modified citrus pectin oligosaccharide transport across Caco-2 cell monolayers. PharmaNutrition. 2013;1(1):22-31. doi: 10.1016/j.phanu.2012.12.001.Eliaz I., Raz A. Pleiotropic Effects of Modified Citrus Pectin. Nutrients. 2019 Nov 1;11(11):2619. doi: 10.3390/nu11112619.Eliaz I., Raz A. Pleiotropic Effects of Modified Citrus Pectin. Nutrients. 2019 Nov 1;11(11):2619. doi: 10.3390/nu11112619.Park S.H., Min B., Kim S. A. et al. Pectin as an alternative feed additive and effects on microbiota. Safety Pract Org Food. 2019:305-19. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-812060-6.00015-5.Park S.H., Min B., Kim S. A. et al. Pectin as an alternative feed additive and effects on microbiota. Safety Pract Org Food. 2019:305-19. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-812060-6.00015-5.Ramachandran C., Wilk B., Melnick S. J., Eliaz I. Synergistic Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects between Modified Citrus Pectin and Honokiol. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2017;2017:8379843. doi: 10.1155/2017/8379843.Ramachandran C., Wilk B., Melnick S. J., Eliaz I. Synergistic Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects between Modified Citrus Pectin and Honokiol. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2017;2017:8379843. doi: 10.1155/2017/8379843.Scaioli E., Sartini A., Bellanova M. et al. Eicosapentaenoic Acid Reduces Fecal Levels of Calprotectin and Prevents Relapse in Patients With Ulcerative Colitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2018 Aug;16(8):1268-1275.e2. doi: 10.1016/j.cgh.2018.01.036.Scaioli E., Sartini A., Bellanova M. et al. Eicosapentaenoic Acid Reduces Fecal Levels of Calprotectin and Prevents Relapse in Patients With Ulcerative Colitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2018 Aug;16(8):1268-1275.e2. doi: 10.1016/j.cgh.2018.01.036.do Prado S. B.R., Castro-Alves V.C., Ferreira G. F., Fabi J. P. Ingestion of Non-digestible Carbohydrates From Plant-Source Foods and Decreased Risk of Colorectal Cancer: A Review on the Biological Effects and the Mechanisms of Action. Front Nutr. 2019 May 15;6:72. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2019.00072.do Prado S. B.R., Castro-Alves V.C., Ferreira G. F., Fabi J. P. Ingestion of Non-digestible Carbohydrates From Plant-Source Foods and Decreased Risk of Colorectal Cancer: A Review on the Biological Effects and the Mechanisms of Action. Front Nutr. 2019 May 15;6:72. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2019.00072.Hara A., Niwa M., Noguchi K. et al. Galectin-3 as a Next-Generation Biomarker for Detecting Early Stage of Various Diseases. Biomolecules. 2020 Mar 3;10(3):389. doi: 10.3390/biom10030389.Hara A., Niwa M., Noguchi K. et al. Galectin-3 as a Next-Generation Biomarker for Detecting Early Stage of Various Diseases. Biomolecules. 2020 Mar 3;10(3):389. doi: 10.3390/biom10030389.Sun L., Sun M., Ma K., Liu J. Let-7d-5p suppresses inflammatory response in neonatal rats with necrotizing enterocolitis via LGALS3-mediated TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2020 Dec 1;319(6): C967-C979. doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.00571.2019.Sun L., Sun M., Ma K., Liu J. Let-7d-5p suppresses inflammatory response in neonatal rats with necrotizing enterocolitis via LGALS3-mediated TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2020 Dec 1;319(6): C967-C979. doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.00571.2019.de Boer R. A., van der Velde A. R., Mueller C. et al. Galectin-3: a modifiable risk factor in heart failure. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2014 Jun;28(3):237-46. doi: 10.1007/s10557-014-6520-2.de Boer R. A., van der Velde A. R., Mueller C. et al. Galectin-3: a modifiable risk factor in heart failure. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2014 Jun;28(3):237-46. doi: 10.1007/s10557-014-6520-2.Ferenc K., Jarmakiewicz-Czaja S., Filip R.Components of the Fiber Diet in the Prevention and Treatment of IBD-An Update. Nutrients. 2022 Dec 29;15(1):162. doi: 10.3390/nu15010162.Ferenc K., Jarmakiewicz-Czaja S., Filip R.Components of the Fiber Diet in the Prevention and Treatment of IBD-An Update. Nutrients. 2022 Dec 29;15(1):162. doi: 10.3390/nu15010162.Ishisono K., Mano T., Yabe T., Kitaguchi K. Dietary Fiber Pectin Ameliorates Experimental Colitis in a Neutral Sugar Side Chain-Dependent Manner. Front Immunol. 2019 Dec 19;10:2979. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02979.Ishisono K., Mano T., Yabe T., Kitaguchi K. Dietary Fiber Pectin Ameliorates Experimental Colitis in a Neutral Sugar Side Chain-Dependent Manner. Front Immunol. 2019 Dec 19;10:2979. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02979.Llewellyn S.R., Britton G. J., Contijoch E. J. et al.Interactions Between Diet and the Intestinal Microbiota Alter Intestinal Permeability and Colitis Severity in Mice. Gastroenterology. 2018 Mar;154(4):1037-1046.e2. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2017.11.030.Llewellyn S.R., Britton G. J., Contijoch E. J. et al.Interactions Between Diet and the Intestinal Microbiota Alter Intestinal Permeability and Colitis Severity in Mice. Gastroenterology. 2018 Mar;154(4):1037-1046.e2. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2017.11.030.Ananthakrishnan A.N., Khalili H., Konijeti G. G. et al. A prospective study of long-term intake of dietary fiber and risk of Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. Gastroenterology. 2013 Nov;145(5):970-7. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2013.07.050.Ananthakrishnan A.N., Khalili H., Konijeti G. G. et al. A prospective study of long-term intake of dietary fiber and risk of Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. Gastroenterology. 2013 Nov;145(5):970-7. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2013.07.050.Ananthakrishnan A.N., Khalili H., Song M. et al. High School Diet and Risk of Crohn’s Disease and Ulcerative Colitis. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2015 Oct;21(10):2311-9. doi: 10.1097/MIB.0000000000000501.Ananthakrishnan A.N., Khalili H., Song M. et al. High School Diet and Risk of Crohn’s Disease and Ulcerative Colitis. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2015 Oct;21(10):2311-9. doi: 10.1097/MIB.0000000000000501.Wu D., Chen S., Ye X. et al. Protective effects of six different pectic polysaccharides on DSS-induced IBD in mice. Food Hydrocoll. 2021; 127:107209. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.107209.Wu D., Chen S., Ye X. et al. Protective effects of six different pectic polysaccharides on DSS-induced IBD in mice. Food Hydrocoll. 2021; 127:107209. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.107209.Wójcik-Pastuszka D., Potempa A., Musiał W. Bipolymeric Pectin Millibeads Doped with Functional Polymers as Matrices for the Controlled and Targeted Release of Mesalazine. Molecules. 2020 Dec 3;25(23):5711. doi: 10.3390/molecules25235711.Wójcik-Pastuszka D., Potempa A., Musiał W. Bipolymeric Pectin Millibeads Doped with Functional Polymers as Matrices for the Controlled and Targeted Release of Mesalazine. Molecules. 2020 Dec 3;25(23):5711. doi: 10.3390/molecules25235711.Svagan A.J., Kusic A., De Gobba C. et al. Rhamnogalacturonan-I Based Microcapsules for Targeted Drug Release. PLoS One. 2016 Dec 19;11(12): e0168050. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0168050.Svagan A.J., Kusic A., De Gobba C. et al. Rhamnogalacturonan-I Based Microcapsules for Targeted Drug Release. PLoS One. 2016 Dec 19;11(12): e0168050. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0168050.Fukunaga T., Sasaki M., Araki Y. et al. Effects of the soluble fibre pectin on intestinal cell proliferation, fecal short chain fatty acid production and microbial population. Digestion. 2003;67(1-2):42-9. doi: 10.1159/000069705.Fukunaga T., Sasaki M., Araki Y. et al. Effects of the soluble fibre pectin on intestinal cell proliferation, fecal short chain fatty acid production and microbial population. Digestion. 2003;67(1-2):42-9. doi: 10.1159/000069705.Mao Y., Kasravi B., Nobaek S. et al. Pectin-supplemented enteral diet reduces the severity of methotrexate induced enterocolitis in rats. Scand J Gastroenterol. 1996 Jun;31(6):558-67. doi: 10.3109/00365529609009128.Mao Y., Kasravi B., Nobaek S. et al. Pectin-supplemented enteral diet reduces the severity of methotrexate induced enterocolitis in rats. Scand J Gastroenterol. 1996 Jun;31(6):558-67. doi: 10.3109/00365529609009128.Markov P.A., Popov S. V., Nikitina I. R., Ovodova R. G., Ovodov Y. S. Anti-inflammatory activity of pectins and their galacturonan backbone.Russ J Bioorganic Chem. 2011;37:817-21.Markov P.A., Popov S. V., Nikitina I. R., Ovodova R. G., Ovodov Y. S. Anti-inflammatory activity of pectins and their galacturonan backbone.Russ J Bioorganic Chem. 2011;37:817-21.Satoh H., Hara T., Murakawa D., Matsuura M., Takata K. Soluble dietary fiber protects against nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-induced damage to the small intestine in cats. Dig Dis Sci. 2010 May;55(5):1264-71. doi: 10.1007/s10620-009-0893-2.Satoh H., Hara T., Murakawa D., Matsuura M., Takata K. Soluble dietary fiber protects against nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-induced damage to the small intestine in cats. Dig Dis Sci. 2010 May;55(5):1264-71. doi: 10.1007/s10620-009-0893-2.

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.